INTRODUCTION
Uncovering the history of karate is very difficult. For many years, historians did not engage with the history of martial arts; perhaps they did not consider this field significant enough, or perhaps they were deterred by the lack of documentation. This applies to both Chinese styles and the Okinawan art of "te." Reliable texts from before the 1930s that describe the history and evolution of karate are practically nonexistent. Moreover, even the later ones, written by masters from Okinawa, are very few in number. And before that? The list is short:
- a note dated 1683 written by Tei Junsoku - an advisor to the King of Okinawa;
- an excerpt from "Notes from Oshima" (Oshima Hikki) from 1761;
- very general notes by several European and American visitors from the 19th century;
- two mid-19th-century illustrations depicting makiwara training in "Tales of the Southern Kingdom" by Nagoya Sagenta;
- a copy of the program for the farewell ceremony for the Chinese delegation in 1867, during which a martial arts demonstration was held in Shuri;
- a letter written in 1882 by Sokon Matsumura to one of his students, Ryosei Kuwae;
- a short text by the later-famous publisher Noma Seiji from 1904;
- two pages from the brochure "Karate Kumite" written in 1905 by instructor Chomo Hanashiro;
- the ten principles of karate practice that Anko Itosu included in a letter to the Ministry of Education in 1908;
- the article "Shihan Gakk? To-de Taikai" (To-de/Karate Meeting at the Teachers' College) by Seiboku Tomikawa in the Ry?ky? Shinp? from 1911;
- a series of articles by Gichin Funakoshi (written under the pseudonym Shoto) titled "Okinawa no Bugei" in the January 1914 issue of Ry?ky? Shinp?.
In 1922, Gichin Funakoshi published "To-de Ryukyu Kenpo"[1], and in the 1930s, books by Kenwa Mabuni, Chokkei Motobu, and Chojun Miyagi appeared. However, these were not detailed historical studies, but rather pamphlets outlining the basics of karate's philosophy and training. Later, however, the students of these masters promoted karate, wrote articles and books - so the sources grew in number[2].
A historian searching for sources on the continent faces similar difficulties. Bodhidharma's famous treatises on physical and spiritual perfection, supposedly written around 520 CE at the Shaolin Monastery, turned out to be apocryphal. The monastery's documents were destroyed by fire. We are not even certain of the location of the "second Shaolin" in Fujian Province. Martial arts masters wrote nothing down; they strongly preferred the oral teacher-student tradition. In this situation, the text "Bubishi," which traveled from China to Okinawa and circulated in copies, is one of the few valuable documents. No wonder it has earned the title "the Bible of karate."
History has been obscured by dust; accounts passed down orally from generation to generation are often ambiguous, even contradictory. The language barrier adds to the difficulty. But that is not all. Over the centuries, certain stereotypes, legends, and even false information have become entrenched, which now need to be "debunked." These errors stemmed from poor selection of sources, misunderstandings, a lack of historical expertise among those seeking the roots of karate, as well as simple confabulation by the authors of texts that often did not even aspire to be scholarly. Fortunately, this has changed in recent years.
Historians and organizations have taken an interest in martial arts[3]. We know more and more, though we are still often groping in the dark. For this reason, this book does not claim to be a historical work. Not every fact cited is accompanied by a footnote citing its source. Moreover, sources are often unreliable and contradictory. Some statements are based on speculation.
When telling a story, we should start at the beginning. But where is the beginning? "Deep is the well of the past. Should we not call it bottomless?" asked Thomas Mann in his book *Joseph and His Brothers*. Every event has a cause. How far back in time should we go to begin the history of karate?
People have been fighting one another since the dawn of time, but combat training for military or security purposes is one thing, while martial arts practiced to refine the body and mind is quite another. The former has immediate goals - to win a fight, to defend a specific value. If drinking a poison that shortens life and destroys one's personality were necessary to achieve this, it would be used. And indeed, this is sometimes the case - pragmatism above all else, the practice of cruelty, "brainwashing." Sport serves as an intermediate stage. Its advocates speak of noble competition and breaking down barriers, but unfortunately, often only the result matters, even at the expense of health or through cheating. The goals of practicing martial arts are entirely different. It is a "way of life," a means of realizing one's own humanity. Moreover, as Sokon Matsumura pointed out in the 19th century, without philosophy, without deeply rooted moral standards, combat training is dangerous. Whoever stops at the stage of technique and physical exercises, may become aggressive, lose control, and pose a threat to those around him and to himself. Thanks to the philosophy of the "budo path," the practitioner is calm, balanced, and loyal, and does nothing that goes against nature or moral principles.
In the person of Sokon Matsumura, three genealogical lines of karate from three countries converge: China, Okinawa, and Japan. We will return to this figure shortly, but for now, let us look far back into the past.
I apologize for any errors in the translation. Some passages may have been translated too literally. The text has not been professionally edited by a native speaker.
[1] Sources give various dates for Bodhidharma's arrival at Shaolin-512, 516, 520, 527-or simply the first half of the 6th century. Bodhidharma likely wandered the region for several decades.
[2] In Buddhism, a luohan (Skt. Arhat) is someone who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and attained nirvana, but also a person advanced on the path to enlightenment.
[3] Some sources attribute to Huike the role of Bodhidharma's most important disciple and successor.
[4] "Long fist" is essentially a group of external styles from which various kung fu styles and modern wushu derive.
[5] The concept of harmonious development was attributed to Bodhidharma based on accounts that he was the author of two treatises: "On Physical Perfection" and "On Mental Perfection." These texts were supposedly "discovered" in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, they turned out to be apocryphal. Nevertheless, as the "father of Zen Buddhism," Bodhidharma could have espoused such a thesis.
[6] The simplest distinction between external styles (Shaolin) and internal styles (Wudang) is that the latter place greater emphasis on the internal energy chi (ki).
[7] At the turn of the 1930s and 1940s, Master Tung Gee (1900-1955) was staying in Okinawa, where he reportedly proposed "comparative studies" to Choki Motobu. Both men thus enriched their art.
[8] Mabuni Kenei, Empty Hand: The Essence of Budo Karate. Palisander Verlag, Chemnitz 2009
[9] Fuzhou - a city in eastern China, near the mouth of the Min River Yang to the East China Sea, the capital of Fujian Province. It was the Chinese port city closest to Okinawa (approx. 840 km as the crow flies).
[10] There is much doubt regarding the identity of Master Ryu Ryu Ko, so one of the subsequent chapters is devoted to this topic.
MASTERS FROM THE FUZHOU
We will write about the Chinese arriving in Okinawa in the next section. Now let's take a look at other places (besides the Shaolin Monastery) in Fujian Province and in the city of Fuzhou where martial arts were practiced and which hosted visitors from Okinawa. Information is, of course, extremely scarce, and sometimes facts are mixed with legend.
Fujian Province is a large region in southeastern China, bordering the Taiwan Strait, with its capital, Fuzhou, located on its eastern edge, on the East China Sea. The southern Shaolin monastery, which I wrote about in the previous chapter, was said to be located in this area, and it was here that the masters of the styles that had the greatest influence on the development of karate lived. The Crane style (he quan) deserves special attention, or more precisely, the White Crane style (bai he quan), and even more precisely - the Crying Crane style[1] (ming he quan).
The crane is a special bird. It is one of the oldest species on Earth. In East Asia, it is a symbol of longevity, wisdom and life experience, fidelity, happiness, and good fortune. For a long time, it has been among the animals observed by kung fu masters to learn defense and attack techniques. It is present in both in Hua Tuo's "Five Animal Exercises" and in the "Shaolin Five Animal System" (here: alongside the dragon, tiger, leopard, and snake) described by Pai Yu Feng in his book *The Essence of the Five Fists*. In the 17th century, facing persecution by Qing dynasty officials, the monks migrated south. The Five Animals System was refined by the monk Miu Hin and the nun Ng Mui. In the section devoted to the crane, they emphasized fighting techniques and tactics.
Fang Qiniang and Zeng Cishu (illustration from the Bubishi)
But in Fujian Province, we find a completely separate origin of the Crane style. Physical aspects intertwine with mental and moral ones, which we will later find in karate-do. There are many versions of this story; let us present the one contained in the famous book Bubishi[2].
In the 16th century, Fang Zhong lived in Yongchun; he knew the Shaolin monk's Quan Fa style and taught it to his daughter, Fang Qiniang. Despite his skills, he was robbed and beaten to death by a group of bandits. The daughter dreamed of revenge, but she knew she stood no chance against the bandits. One day, Fang Qiniang saw two huge cranes fighting each other. With amazement and admiration, she watched their lightning-fast leaps, dodges, feints, and strikes with their beaks and claws. She grabbed a bamboo pole and tried to chase the birds away. However, they easily dodged the stick and eventually flew off. "If someone could fight like cranes, they would be invincible," the girl thought. And for three years, she developed a fighting system that combined the Shaolin monk's fist style with her observations of the fighting cranes. The system was named Yongchun He Quan - the Yongchun Crane Fist. Fang achieved mastery and a reputation as an undefeated warrior; among her students was the famous boxer Zeng Cishu. She also developed the philosophy of martial arts that her father had instilled in her. Dangerous techniques should only be used as a last resort in self-defense. Without inner peace and harmony, one cannot truly master martial arts or find one's path in life. By discovering and then mastering your inner strength, you can develop it in harmony with nature and use it to defeat any opponent. Power and wisdom come from within. The mind controls the body. In this way, one can transcend physical limitations and achieve more than just through physical training. People who understand martial arts are never arrogant, heartless, or unjust.
Some see the collaboration between a woman (Fang Qiniang) and a man (Zeng Cishu) as a synthesis of softness and hardness that laid the foundation for later styles from Fujian and Okinawan to-de. Soon, the students of Fang Qiniang and Zeng Cishu began teaching on their own in other parts of Fujian Province, outside the town of Yongchen. Thus, the name Fujian Bai He Quan (Fujian White Crane Fist) came into use[3]. The style developed into five similar "substyles": ming he quan (Crying Crane Fist), su he quan (Sleeping Crane Fist), shi he quan (Eating Crane Fist ), fei he quan (flying crane fist), and zong he quan (dancing crane fist). However, it is doubtful that there is a single specific source for Bai He Quan. The fact is that this style was taught in Fujian Province when martial arts practitioners from Okinawa, such as Matsumura, Aragaki, Nakaima, and Higaonna, visited the province in the 19th century. Another expert in White Crane was the tea merchant Wu Xiangui, known in Okinawa as Go Kenki, who settled on the island in 1912 and had a significant influence on many karate masters.
A 19th-century photograph of Chinese martial arts practitioners
A special place in Fuzhou was so-called Kojo Dojo. The Chinese Cai family (Okinawan: Kogusuku, Japanese: Kojo) lived in Okinawa and practiced martial arts, but had strong ties to the kung fu school in Fuzhou. It was there that the mysterious master Ryu Ryu Ko was said to be the head instructor, with Wai Xinxian (Shinzan) as his assistant. It was there that in 1828 "Umare Bushi" Kojo and "Bushi" Matsumura appeared. Ten years later, Kitoku Sakiyama arrived there, and in 1870, Sakiyama's student - Seisho Aragaki. And it was likely there, in the port city, that martial arts-trained bodyguards for diplomats and merchants - such as Iwa and Ason - also resided. And since the Ryukyu Kingdom (Okinawa) was a vassal of the emperor, it was able to maintain lucrative diplomatic, cultural, and commercial ties with China. Even in the 20th century, Fuzhou was a kung fu mecca to which later style founders such as Chojun Miyagi (Goju-ryu) and Kanbun Uechi (Uechi-ryu).
Of course, the Okinawans who arrived over the course of a century could not have been taught by the same instructors. The similarity of names sometimes leads to confusion. Thus, Matsumura's teacher in the 1820s and 1830s was likely the baihe-quan master Wang Daxing (1798-1894).
It is also worth mentioning the semi-legendary figure of Master Wong Chung-Yo, who lived in Fuzhou in the 17th century and taught the xing yi quan style ("fist of the will"), which belongs to the group of styles from the Wudang Mountains. Wong was born around 1630; the date of his death is unknown. One of Wong's students is said to have been the famous Chatan Yara - Takahara's teacher, that is, an expert in the art. Some researchers link this figure to the mysterious Kosokun.
Chinese masters of kung fu also traveled to Japan. It is known that in the 17th century, they served as teachers to the founders of the Kito-ryu and Yoshin-ju-jutsu styles. But there are no significant technical similarities between these styles and karate. So this is not the path to follow in the search for the roots of karate. These are undoubtedly found in Okinawa. And that is why, when writing about the history of karate, it is essential to mention the history of the Ryukyu Kingdom.
[1] The figure of Minamoto no Tametomo is shrouded in many legends, so his stay in Okinawa seems unlikely, but the Taira samurai were likely hiding in the Ryukyu Islands.
[2] In the Fujian dialect, 36 can simply be understood to mean "many."
[3] Satsuma is the name of the domain comprising the provinces of Satsuma, Osumi, and Hyuga. Also known as Kagoshima. Today, Kagoshima Prefecture
[4] These words are quoted by S. Nagamine based on an account of Basil Chamberlain Hall's conversation with the emperor in 1816. S. Nagamine, *The Essence of Okinawan Karate-do*, Tuttle Publishing, 1976
[5] Quoted from: Nagamine Shoshin, *The Essence of Okinawan Karate-do*. Tuttle Publishing, 1976. The author claims that this poem was written in 1663
[6] According to Naoki Motobu's blog (translated by Andreas Quast), which cites Nobuo Harada, *Mindai Ry?ky? Shiry? Sh?sei* (A Collection of Ry?ky? Materials from the Ming Dynasty)
[7] There is a legend about 36 families who arrived in 1393 at the invitation of King Satto, followed by 100 households living behind a clay wall. Modern historians are uncertain about these facts. It is likely that the Chinese arrived in successive waves
[8] Education began at age 5; at age 15, students were summoned to an official audience with the king at Shuri Castle. They also had to spend several years on the mainland to further their education.
[9] Samure is the Okinawan pronunciation of the word samurai, but the two terms do not mean the same thing. The Japanese samurai was first and foremost a warrior. In some sources - particularly Japanese ones - the Ryukyuan nobility is referred to as samurai, and the princes as daimyo, which is also misleading, as Japanese daimyo were feudal lords with vast estates.
[10] In 1670, the nobility was ordered to keep "genealogical records"
[11] Nagamine S., The Essence of Okinawan Karate-do, p. 21
[12] It is possible that all three names refer to a single person - the instructor Chotoku Kyan, to whom he passed down an expanded version of the Ku-shanku kata, known today as Chatan Yara Kushanku.
[13] Giordano Emanuel, "Kusanku - Chinese or Japanese kata?", article https:// karate-shorin-ryu-piemonte.webnode.it
[14] In his book, Kenei Mabuni explicitly writes about Master Shungo Sakugawa (1733-1815), who combined Okinawan te with Chinese martial arts. Mabuni, op. cit.
[15] The author of this hypothesis is karate practitioner and historian Simon Keegan.
[16] This theory can be found in the article "Kusanku: Chinese or Japanese kata?" by Emanuel Giordano
[17] Shoshine Nagamine was a student of Chotoku Kyan, who in turn was taught by Master Yara. According to Nagamine, op. cit.
[18] Dates are highly uncertain. Sources mention several figures named Tachimura (Takemura) from Tobaru. The son of a student of Sakugawa was reportedly sent to Kagoshima to train in jujutsu. G. Funakoshi wrote about this in a newspaper article in 1914.
[19] In some sources, Kishimoto's year of birth is also given as 1866 or 1868.
[20] K. Mabuni, *Empty Hand: The Essence of Budo Karate*, Chemnitz 2009
[1] There are many different accounts regarding Matsumura's age. The above is based on a document stating that Matsumura's 88th birthday was celebrated in 1896. These dates are also inscribed on Matsumura's grave. Kenei Mabuni, in his book, gives the dates 1800-1896, but there is also evidence that Matsumura was born in 1797.
[2] The figure of Ason appears quite frequently in the history of to-de. Gichin Funakoshi (under the pseudonym Shoto) published an article titled "Okinawa no Bugei" in the Ry?ky? Shinp? magazine in 1914. In it, he recounts stories from his teacher Anko Azato, who claimed that Ason was an officer, represented Sh?rei-ry? (Naha-te), and taught Sakiyama of Izumizaki, Nagahama, Tomoyose, and Gushi. Sakiyama later taught Tomigusuku and Kuniyoshi; Nagahama was Itosu's teacher; and Gushi taught Ishimine (according to Naoki Motobu's blog). Others identify Ason as Liu Long Gong, who in turn appears to be the famous master Ryu Ryu Ko.
[3] Other sources mention five years of sword training under the legendary master Ijuin Yashichiro
[4] K. Mabuni, op. cit.
[5] Bucho is a so-called personal name (nanui, nanori) initially given only upon reaching adulthood, used in Okinawa since the 17th century, consisting of one clan character (nanori-gashira) and one distinguishing character.
[6] The full text of this letter can be found in the chapter on the philosophy of karate
[7] The concept of style in martial arts is extremely broad and ambiguous. Typically, a given style is distinguished by the way techniques are performed, the emphasis placed on specific aspects of training, and the selection of forms.
[8] In some sources, Tawada's date of death is given as 1907, and other names appear as well, which stems from different interpretations of the ideograms
"BUCHO" MATSUMURA
Sokon Matsumura (May 30, 1809 - August 8, 1899[1]) was born in Yamagawa into a noble family - the Kiyo clan. On his father's side, it was the Bu clan, descended from the first Chinese settlers in Kumemura. On his mother's side, it was the ancient Ryukyuan Mo clan. Both clans had martial arts experts in their ranks. He trained from childhood. We do not know exactly from whom he learned martial arts at that time. His first teacher was likely his father, Sofuku, who instilled in him the principle of balance between physical and spiritual training. The next was someone from the Sakugawa family, or perhaps he trained under the guidance of Kanga Sakugawa's student, Matsumoto. Some sources suggest that Sokon was also taught by Chatan Yara, but of course it could not have been Li Dao - Takahara's alleged teacher - but rather someone younger from the family. Nevertheless, it is certain that Sokon learned te.
Sokon "Bushi" Matsumura
In 1826, Sokon entered the service of King Sho Ko. According to the tradition of the court guards, he then abandoned his family name and adopted a new one - Matsumura - and was also granted the title of chikudun pechin. He began training with the king's current bodyguard, whom he would soon replace - Chinpe Kojo, also known as Umare Bushi of Kume. In 1828, the king sent a diplomatic mission to the mainland to explore the possibility of greater support for Ryukyu from China. Sokon Matsumura and Chinpe Kojo also joined the diplomats, but their goal was also to train in martial arts under Chinese masters. During his stay in China, Matsumura studied martial arts under the guidance of several different instructors. Some of them later visited Okinawa as part of the delegation's security guard, such as Iwa (Iwaa, Yáo Wéi Bó), Wang Daxing, and Ason[2].
It is said that Matsumura also ended up in "Southern Shaolin," where he encountered training based on the practice of forms. Many years later, Chojun Miyagi, the founder of the Goju-ryu style, would refer to this training as the origin of Naha-te and "orthodox Goju-ryu." It is also worth noting that Matsumura visited China (Fuzhou, Beijing) several times and spent a significant amount of time there (various estimates range from 10 to 15 years). He studied various styles. Iwaa was most likely an expert in xing-yi-quan (the fist of form and will), Wang Daxing - Baihe-quan, and Ason - Shaolin-quan-fa,
Diplomacy in China proved fruitless; King Sho Ko was forced to abdicate, and his successor opted to come to terms with the Japanese. He also wanted his bodyguard to be skilled in the art of the sword. In 1832, Matsumura traveled to Satsuma on Kyushu and stayed there for about two years[3]. There, he also trained at the Jigen-ryu sword school. This last point is very interesting, as Kenei Mabuni was the first to note[4]. The Satsuma samurai of the Jigen-ryu commanded widespread respect for their art, which was based on a single, extremely fast, and maximally effective strike. They also taught their families how to fight with various objects (kobujutsu) for self-defense in the absence of the head of the household. It is said that it was while in Japan that Matsumura developed his style. Its essence was speed, power, and striking a vital point. This is where the saying comes from: ichigeki hissatsu - "One strike - one opponent." Furthermore, Matsumura was inspired by tachi-ki-uchi training (striking a standing tree) and introduced makiwara (striking a board). It follows that - as already mentioned in the introduction - Matsumura embodies the convergence of three sources of karate: Okinawan te, Chinese Shaolin quan fa, and the economical, pragmatic martial art of the Satsuma samurai.
We know quite a bit about Matsumura's advanced education in literature. As a court official, he even passed special examinations. In 1838, he married a young woman named Tsuru (also referred to in sources as Chiru or Ume) Yonamine, who had practiced martial arts since childhood. There is an anecdote associated with this. Apparently, Tsuru was tall, strong, and very beautiful, but she rejected suitors because they could not match her in combat. Sokon therefore had to literally fight for her favor. One version of the anecdote even claims that he was defeated, while another says that he underestimated his opponent, lost the first bout, and only won in the rematch.
From 1838 to 1860, Sokon Matsumura served as an advisor to King Sho Iku and the personal instructor of the young King Sho Tai. He developed his his martial arts skills by training with the most outstanding masters of the time, as discussed in the next chapter. He wrote literary works. Then he left for Fuzhou for a few years for the second time. After the fall of the kingdom, he received a low-stress position as a guard of the Royal Gardens (Uban) and taught karate to locals who were interested in the old ways of fighting.
During this time, Matsumura wrote several letters, most of which were signed with the name "Bucho"[5]. One of them is particularly noteworthy. In a letter to his student Ryosei Kuwae (fortunately preserved by the family), he articulated his philosophy of practicing martial arts. This concept, known as "Matsumura's Triple Path," demonstrates that karate was, from the very beginning, a path to human perfection, one that placed very high moral demands[6].
Matsumura was the most renowned martial arts expert of his time. He is considered the founder of the original style[7] of Shuri-te (later known as Shorin-ryu) and the creator of many kata, including the fundamental Passai. This style was fast and hard. It formed the basis for the later development of karate and was closest to the traditional martial art of Okinawa. The old karate masters used to say: "The only true 'te' is Shuri-te." It is believed that Matsumura's shuri-te kata repertoire initially included: Kushanku (learned from the Yara and Sakugawa families), the now-lost Channan (pra Pinan/Heian?), and those brought from Fuzhou: Seisan (13), Useishi (54), Jutte (Jitte, 10 hands). Matsumura then developed Passai (Matsumura Bassai) and Passai Gwa (Bassai Sho), and upon his return from Japan - Jion. Later, sifu Ason arrived in Okinawa, and it was from him that Matsumura learned the Naihanchi (Naifanchin) form. Finally, from the mysterious Annan - Chinto. Among the 10 forms mentioned, the fast, dynamic Naihanchi (now divided into 3 kata) is considered fundamental to the Shuri-te style. According to Matsumura's grandson - Hohana Soken - he also brought the Sanchin and Hakutsuru (White Crane) forms from China.
As can be seen, Matsumura's Shuri-te had many sources. Little known and underappreciated is the influence of the Five Elements Fist, the Five Animals of Shaolin, and internal styles such as xing yi quan (hsing-i-chu-an, "fist of the will") and bagua zhang (pakua chang, "hand of the eight trigrams").
During his stay in Fuzhou and Beijing, Matsumura gained a deeper understanding of the Chinese concepts of xing and taolu - as training in a specific martial art style - which he combined with the Japanese concept of kata. Xing (?, also transcribed as hsing, literally "shape" or "form") is a set of techniques specific to a given style and the method of performing them - a distinct concept of combat encapsulated in a form. Taolu, on the other hand, is also known as lian - training, practice, a set sequence of movements in training. Superficial practice of martial arts usually boils down to taolu, but great masters recommend understanding xing. And so it remains to this day. Whoever disregards kata cannot claim to practice karate.
It is commonly believed that the master-student lineages in early karate were straightforward. In reality, they were complex. The greatest masters often had several teachers, even during the same period. It was customary that if a master wished to teach a student a technique or kata for which another master was famous, he would send his student to study under that other master. Matsumura's most famous students were: Kosaku Matsumora (1829-1898) from Tomari, and Anko (Yasutsune) Azato (1827-1906) and Anko (Yasutsune) Itosu (1832-1915) from Shuri. Also worth mentioning are his grandson Nabe Matsumura (1860-1930), the sai-jutsu master Shinbuku Tawada (1851-1920[8] ), the tall, slender Ishimine (1835-1889), Sakihara (1833-1918), Kiyuna (1845-1920), and the previously mentioned Ryosei Kuwae (1858-1939), Chotoku Kyan (1870-1945). He also shared his knowledge with Seisho Aragaki (1840-1918), the Motobu brothers, and the students of Azato and Itosu - Gichin Funakoshi (1868-1957), Kentsu Yabu (1866-1937), and Chomo Hanashiro (1869-1945). There are, however, indications that Matsumura did not pass on the entirety of his art to anyone. He taught techniques, he taught forms, but the essence of his fast and effective karate remains shrouded in mystery. This does not change the fact that all the roots of karate converge in the person of Matsumura: the indigenous Okinawan roots, Chinese kenpo, Japanese ji-gen-ryu tactics, and the philosophy of self-improvement through the practice of martial arts. This is why it is Sokon Matsumura whom we can rightly call the "father of karate."
THE LEGENDARY ANAN AND HIS STUDENTS FROM TOMARI
Kosaku Matsumora of Tomari
As I mentioned earlier, the three locations - the area around the royal castle in Shuri, the port of Naha, and the village of Tomari - were never far apart. Nevertheless, there were subtle differences between the forms of tode practiced in these places. In Naha, the influence of orthodox Chinese kenpo was stronger, while in Shuri, it was that of the ancient Okinawan te. In the village of Tomari, various styles of martial arts converged and blended. On the one hand, this was due to students who came to study under masters from Shuri or Naha, and on the other hand, due to teachers from China who lived here during their temporary stay. And these were very different individuals. There was the aforementioned Ambassador Wanji, members of the imperial mission's security detail, instructors from Fuzhou invited by acquaintances, as well as sailors waiting for their damaged ship to be repaired or castaways looking to earn money by giving martial arts lessons. The latter group was said to include the semi-legendary teacher of Sokona Matsumura and other warriors - a certain Chinto, also known as Annan, or perhaps Channan (Chan Nan).
Let's fast-forward to the mid-19th century. Matsumura is a renowned expert in to-de and the head of the royal guard; he has several students in Shuri and Tomari, including Master Choken Makabe[1] (Okinawan: Chukun Makabi, 1769-1825), his students Kishin Teruya (1804-1864), Giko (Karyu) Uku (1800-1850?), and their students Kosaku Matsumora (1829-1898) and Kokan Oyadomari (1827-1905). According to a more plausible account, a sailor from the Annan region (a district of Fuzhou), who was waiting for his ship to be repaired, taught martial arts to the Okinawans mentioned above. This version was reported by Gichin Funakoshi as something he had heard from Anko Azato[2]. According to a more intriguing rogue's tale, a Chinese man was thrown overboard during a storm and drifted to the coast of Okinawa. His companions did not search for him, and he did not officially ask anyone for help, likely because the ship was a pirate vessel. He stole food and hid in the thickets. Our unlikely legend has it that Matsumura was sent to capture the thief. A fight broke out during the arrest, during which the castaway demonstrated great skill. It turned out that he was an expert in the Crane style. Matsumura abandoned the arrest and asked the man for lessons. The newcomer taught his techniques through a form that Matsumura and the masters of Tomari later incorporated into their repertoire under the name Chinto[3], and 70 years later - after a slight modification - Gichin Funakoshi introduced it as Gankaku (Crane on a Rock). Reflections
Matsumora and Oyadomari, mentioned above, as well as the lesser-known Yoshi Yamada (also known as Gikei Yamazato), are considered the "founding fathers" of the Tomari-te style (Tomari's hands). Sources often emphasize the eclecticism of Tomari-te, but it seems that this is a result of the European tendency to classify. The older masters from Tomari were likely influenced by the 17th-century teachings of Wanji, while the younger ones were influenced by Annan/Chinte, whoever he was[4], and Sokon Matsumura, who taught both the Seisan form - later unambiguously associated with Naha-te - and the Naifanchin (Naihanchi), considered the quintessence of Shuri-te. It is an undeniable fact, however, that Kosaku Matsumura imbued the kata he practiced - Rohai, Wanshu, Wankan, Chinto, Passai - with a distinctive style.
In addition to the three mentioned above, Tomari was also taught by Masters Nagahama and Gusukuma, who are remembered primarily as the instructors of Anko Itosu - the man who modernized karate. The former reportedly placed the greatest emphasis on physical conditioning - under his guidance, Itosu grew to become the strongest budoka in Okinawa - but neglected combat training (kumite). On his deathbed, he advised his student to return to Sokon Matsumura to learn free fighting. This surprising fact, cited by Choki Motobu, illustrates the mentality of the Tomari masters. It often happened that a teacher would send his students to another master to learn some aspect of budo in which the latter was an expert.
Some consider the aforementioned Choki Motobu (1870-1944) to be the leading representative of the next generation of Tomari-te, although he did not represent the most typical lineage of Kosaku Matsumura's style. We will return to him later in this work. Another, more orthodox lineage is that of Kotatsu Iha (1873-1928), also known as Iha-gwa no Nushi or Iha Sis?-tanm?. He was an interesting figure. Born into an aristocratic family, he studied martial arts under the masters Oyadomari and Matsumora. He died at a relatively young age, but managed to train many karateka who would later become prominent, such as Taro Shimabukuro, Shoshin Nagamine, and Seiyu Nakasone (1893-1983), who was the last master of this karate lineage. His student, Iken Tokashiki, combined Tomari-te with Goju-ryu, founding the Gohaku-ryu style and the Gohaku-kai organization in 1982.
At this point (with considerable effort), we can see how tangled the threads of Tomari-te are and why some doubt the existence of Tomari-te as a form of karate. Seiyu Nakasone was a friend of Seiko Higa (1898-1966) - a student of the Naha-te masters (Higaonny, Kyody, Miyagi) - with whom he often trained. Higa's student was Seiko Fukuchi (1919-1975) - who later became Iken Tokashiki's teacher...
Today, some practitioners trace the lineage of Tomari-te back to Chotoku Kyan (since he studied under Oyadomari and Matsumori) and his student Zenryo Shimabuku, but this is not convincing. Apparently, at a demonstration where shuri-te and naha-te kata were being presented, Kyan - known for his originality - wanted to stand out and announced that his art was tomari-te. Kyan's most orthodox student, Joen Nakazato, named his style shorinji-ryu. That is why we will discuss Kyan in the chapter "The Young Forest Style."
Now we will present the origins of Naha-te and Seisho Aragaki, a figure of immense importance to the history of karate.
SEISHO ARAGAKI: THE BIRTH OF NAHA-TE
Karate historians who prefer simple classifications once portrayed Kanryo Higaonna (1853-1915) as the first representative of Naha-te and the founder of the early Sh?rei-ry? style[1]. Well, but today we generally look much deeper. After all, the Chinese settlement of Kumemura existed right next to the port of Naha as early as the 14th century. So if we define Naha-te as a proto-style in which the influences of Chinese martial arts, led by Shaolin Quan Fa, are strongest, then its history must have begun at least in the 18th century. Unfortunately, we know nothing about those times.
According to Chojun Miyagi, the founder of the Goju-ryu style (the main successor to Naha-te), the origins date back to 1828, when Sokon Matsumura and "Bushi" Kojo traveled to Fuzhou and brought back the fundamentals of the martial art, as embodied, among other things, in the Seisan kata. Matsumura went his own way, while in the Kojo family, this early Naha-te was practiced as a closed style, passed down only within the family (Kojo-ryu). But the groundwork had been laid, and the so-called Kojo-dojo in Fuzhou accepted subsequent students from Okinawa.
Seisho Aragaki (1840-1918[2]) came from an assimilated Chinese family in Kumemura and worked at the royal court; he had practiced martial arts since childhood, initially trained by someone
Seisho "Maya" Aragaki
from his family and unknown masters from Kumemura (possibly from the Kojo family). He was likely also taught by Kitoku Sakiyama (1819-1888), who is also said to be a precursor of na-ha-te. Due to his great agility, Aragaki was nicknamed Maya (cat). Another nickname of his is Kama-de-un-shu (sickles-hands-cloud-palm), which may suggest that he performed the Unshu kata with open palms. As a translator, he used the name Tsuji.
He demonstrated his skills in Shuri (more precisely, in the village of Sakiyama on the edge of the palace gardens, in the tea pavilion) on March 24, 1867, during the famous demonstration held to bid farewell to the Chinese envoys (sapposhi). A copy of the program for this event, known as "San-Ru-Chu Narabini Shogei Bangumi," is one of the few historical documents on karate, so let us quote it[3] :
Sanryuchu - dance performance
Uchinahazatsumi - Okinawan percussion music,
Tinbe and rochin (shield and short sword) performed by Chiku Maeda (Maesato pechin),
Tesshaku (lit. iron lord - sai) versus bo (long staff) performed by Maesato and Tsuji Aragaki,
Seisan kata performed by Tsuji Aragaki,
Bo vs. tode (hand-to-hand combat against a staff) presented by Maesato and Aragaki,
Chishaukiun kata performed by Aragaki,
Tinbe and Bo (shield vs. stick) demonstration performed by Tomura (Tomimu-ry) and Aragaki,
Tesshaku (sai) demonstrated by Maesato,
Kou Shu (kumite or kyusho-jutsu) by Maesato and Aragaki,
Shabo (stick or perhaps nunchaku) is performed by Shusai Ikemi Yagusuku, the Pechurrin (Suparinpei) kata is performed by Tomura (Tomimura), and Kogusuku (Kojo) Pechin recites poetry and plays the biwa lute.
From the above list, it follows that Aragaki was a kobudo expert and that even before his visit to Fuzhou, he knew (and taught) forms considered fundamental to naha-te, namely Seisan and Suparinpei (Pechurrin). We know that he also knew the third fundamental form - Sanchin. This refutes the theory that Kanryo Higaonna brought the basic forms of naha-te to Okinawa.
Three years after the aforementioned demonstration, Aragaki left for Beijing on a diplomatic mission as an interpreter. But on his way back, he stopped in Fuzhou at the "Kojo Dojo," likely the same place where Matsumura had stayed in 1828. There, he trained under Wai Shinzan (Xinxian)[4] and, according to oral tradition, became a student of the semi-legendary master Ryu Ryu Ko, who is said to have also taught other later-famous visitors from Okinawa. Upon his return, Aragaki did not open a school or create a style, but he taught many famous budoka who later founded karate schools and styles. They included: Kanryo Higaonna, Kenwa Mabuni (Shito-ryu), Chojun Miyagi (Goju-ryu), Kanbun Uechi (Uechi-ryu), Gichin Funakoshi (Shotokan), Tsuyoshi Chitose (Chito-ryu), and Kanken Toyama (Shudokan). Aragaki taught the kata Unshu, Niseishi, Seisan, Sanchin, Pechurrin, and Sochin. He can therefore confidently be considered one of the fathers of Naha-te alongside representatives of the Kojo family (also known as Kogusuku or Cai), such as: Chinpe "Bushi" Kojo, Taitei Kojo (1837-1915), and Isei Kojo. And also alongside Master Shinkichi Kuniyoshi (1848-1926), who, however, had very few students.
In the previous paragraph, I mentioned Master Ryu Ryu Ko - one of the greatest mysteries in the history of karate.
THE MYSTERIOUS MASTER RYU RYU KO
Ryu Ryu Ko, or perhaps Ryuru Ko, Ruruko, or Master Liu. Is this one person, several people, or perhaps no one at all - a legend masking gaps in memory or a lack of information? In any case, the people of Ryukyu, who were searching for martial arts instructors in Fuzhou, studied under someone. Sokon Matsumura (1809-1899), Kitoku Sakiyama (1819-1888), Seisho Aragaki (1840-1918), Ranpo Maezato (1838-1904), Kenri Nakaima (1819-1897), Kanryo Higaonna (1853-1915), and others - found experts who agreed to share their knowledge. One of them was the mysterious Ryu Ryu Ko. Most agree that this name is merely a nickname or pseudonym. Ryu is the Japanese pronunciation of the common Chinese name Liu; ryuru can be understood as the verb "to continue"; and Ko means "respected brother." So we are dealing with a familiar, affectionate alias. Well, yes, but experts on Far Eastern culture claim that a student, out of respect for his master, would not have used an alias in those days, but rather the full name. And this is just one of many doubts surrounding this issue.
Let's review some facts. In 1838, two very young friends - Kenri Nakaima and Kitoku Sakiyama - set off for China to study martial arts "at the source." Reportedly, both became students of Master Ryu Ryu Ko. However, it is more likely that Sakiyama trained with another instructor - Wai Xinxian (Mandarin: Shinzan) - who taught him the Sanchin, Seisan, Sanseiru, and Suparinpei. For this reason, Sakiyama is considered the precursor of Naha-te - a style of karate later developed by Aragaki and Higaonna. Meanwhile, Nakaima, who came from a prominent Chinese family, came under the tutelage of another master. This was likely an instructor at the Imperial Military Academy named Liu. Many Japanese and Ryukyuans cannot pronounce the "l" sound and replace it with an "r" - hence we hear Ryu. The master taught Nakaima fighting techniques, tactics, astrology, and medicine, and after seven years, he handed over his secret manuscripts to him and permitted him to teach - but only his one son, in accordance with the tradition of "family" martial arts. The name of Nakaima's style - ryuei-ryu - can be understood as "Master Liu's fighting style" or as the style of Liu and the Nakaima family.
The above story is very coherent, which is why the parallel narrative - according to which Nakaima and Sakiyama trained in Fuzhou under Master Ryu Ryu Ko at the turn of the 1860s and 1870s - is somewhat surprising. Perhaps it was about other people with the same surnames, or perhaps relatives? Or perhaps it was simply to make the date fit the beautiful legend passed down in the Nakaima family. In 1914, Ryu Ryu Ko reportedly visited Okinawa and was told that his former student Sakiyama was on his deathbed. He immediately went to see him, but arrived too late. He is said to have remarked at the time: "If his heart were still beating, I could have saved him." This story caused quite a stir, and today various accounts cite different dates for the lives of Kitoku Sakiyama and even Nakaima.
Once again, the name Ryu Ryu Ko comes up in connection with Seisho Aragaki (1840-1918). Starting in 1870, Aragaki - who was well-educated and fluent in Chinese - visited Fuzhou several times. Most likely, he trained under Master Wai Xinxian, whom he had previously known as a bodyguard for Chinese consuls visiting Okinawa. Some sources state that there were two guards: Wai Xinxian and Ryu Ryu Ko. Perhaps so, or perhaps these are two names for the same person? In 1873, Kanryo Higaonna[1] (1853-1915) appeared in Fuzhou. For several years, he trained at the Kojo Dojo - a school in Fuzhou run by the Kojo family of Kumemura (perhaps with the already elderly Wai Xi-nxian?), and was then directed to the mysterious master Ryu Ryu Ko. According to oral accounts, the teacher initially took him on as an assistant for household chores and in the craft workshop he ran, but he did not want to teach martial arts. It was only when Kanryo showed courage during a flood and saved the master's daughter that the master changed his mind.
The Higa family tells stories said to have been recalled by Seko Higa (1898-1966) from the time when, as a child, he overheard his father's conversations with Higaonna, and from when, as a teenager, he began training under him. These stories indicate that Wai Xinxian and Ryu Ryu Ko were renowned masters from Fuzhou, bodyguards to consuls, as well as other facts about Higaonna that I have cited above. It is also significant that when Kanryo Higaonna bid farewell to his master in 1882, the latter was already old and had poor eyesight. Let us now turn to the researchers of karate history.
Some time ago (in the 1990s), Iken Tokashiki, followed by Patrick McCarthy and Andreas Quast, identified Ryu Ryu Ko as Xie Zhongxiang (1852-1930), whose descendants are still alive today and believe that Kanryo Higaonna studied under their ancestor. Xie Zhongxiang was a craftsman, but he is said to have come from an aristocratic background and to have trained in martial arts in a mountain monastery in his youth ("South Shaolin"? ). His style is said to have been the "Crying Crane," and the main forms he taught were: Happoren (today Paipuren), Nepai (the prototype of Nipapo), Doonquan (also known as Chukyo or Jusanporen), Roujin (Jusen), and Qijing (Shichikei). However, Xie did not open his martial arts school until 1883, by which time Higaonna had already returned to Okinawa.
Sifu - lit. teacher / father
These (highly respected, incidentally) karate historians overlooked the fact that Xie was actually Kanryo's contemporary; they did not explain why Higaonna did not later teach the aforementioned crane forms, but only Sanchin, Seisan, Sanseiru, and Peichurrin/Suparinpei (Peichurrin was in the repertoire of Higaonna's oldest student, Juhatsu Kyoda, while Suparinpei was in that of another student, Chojun Miyagi), which he could have learned from Seisho Aragaki or from Wai Xinxian (Shinzan); nor did they attach any importance to these other inaccuracies. One thing, however, is clear. Xie Zhongxiang could not have been the teacher of Kenri Nakaima, the elder Sakiyama, or Seisho Aragaki. At best, therefore, we have two different Ryu Ryu Ko...
But perhaps there was one after all. In recent years, Tokashiki's theory has been rejected. The Fuzhou Martial Arts Association has even issued an official statement. Numerous researchers (and budo practitioners), such as Akio Kinjo, Morio Higaonna, Takao Nakaya, Li Yiduan, and Filip Konjokrad, identify Ryu Ryu Ko as Liu Long Gong (1793-1882). He was an officer and instructor at the Imperial Academy; he was from Beijing but resided in Fuzhou and served as a bodyguard for the sapposhi (imperial envoys)[2]. He traveled to the Ryukyu Kingdom twice (in 1838 and 1866, accompanied by Wai Xinxian). He was an expert in the White Crane style, whose foundational form was Saam Chien (Sanchin). Let us remember that in those days, a form was not so much a sequence of techniques as the very idea of a fighting style. In various branches of the White Crane, we also find other forms that form the basis of Okinawan Naha-te, and later Goju-ryu, Toon-ryu, and Shito-ryu - Seisan, Sanseiru, Pechurrin (Suparinpei), Niseishi. As well as others - such as Seipai, Useishi (Gojushiho), and Jitte (Jutte).
This concept aligns with the dates of Nakaima's, Aragaki's and Higaonna's training in Fuzhou. Other alleged students - Sakiyama, Maezato, Taitei Kojo, and Sokon Matsumura - may also have encountered Liu Long Gong. This is also confirmed by the words of Chojun Miyagi, who in 1915 saw the grave of his teacher's teacher (Higaonna) in Fuzhou. Is the mystery solved? Not exactly.
First - why does Nakaima's Ryuei-ryu differ so much technically from Higaonna's Naha-te? Does the fact that Nakaima received permission to teach (only his son), while Higaonna did not - explain everything? Second - why did Nakaima have a hard time finding a master, even though he was of Chinese descent and paid a hefty sum for his training (there is evidence of this) - and yet Higaonna, who was quite poor and illiterate, managed to do the same? Imperial officers rarely accepted foreigners as apprentices. Thirdly - what about Higaonna's oral account of the master's workshop and his rescued daughter? A rumor? A fabrication? These numerous doubts lend credence to the theory that Nakai and Higaonna had completely different teachers. Neither of them was Xie Zhongxiang, but Nakaima's teacher may have been Liu Long Gong. Who, then, taught Kanryo Higaonna? Technical similarities suggest that Higaonna's karate was close to Aragaki's karate. This matter also troubled Chojun Miyagi, who wrote in 1934 that "the only fact we can be certain of is that the Fuzhou style was introduced to Okinawa in 1828 and served as the foundation upon which Goju-ryu karate developed." Thus, Miyagi refers to the journey of Sokon Matsumura and Chinpe Kojo, after which the martial art in Okinawa received a new, powerful impetus. Matsumura's teacher at that time was most likely Master Iwah. It is truly strange that a leading student has so little to say about Higaonna's nine-year stay on the mainland[3] and refers to to other sources.
Note that Gichin Funakoshi (1868-1957), in his 1922 book "Ryukyu Kenpo Karate-jutsu", lists masters from Fuzhou who taught the Ryukyuans in the 19th century. In Naha, Ason is said to have taught Sakiyama in the Shorei-ryu style, while Wai Xinxian taught Higaonna, among others. Iwah, in turn, taught Sokon Matsumura in the Shorin-ryu style. Some historians identify Ason as Liu Long Gong, and Iwaa as Yao Wei Bo. Gichin Funakoshi does distinguish between Shorei-ryu and Shorin-ryu, but in a very general sense, so this does not contradict Chojun Miyagi's statements regarding the origins of Goju-ryu.
Of course, the safest assumption is that Ryu Ryu Ko is the as-yet-unidentified Master Liu, who was Kenri's Nakaima teacher and no one else. Ryuei-ryu practitioners believe that Ryu Ryu Ko was a high-ranking officer in the imperial army, but during the time he taught Nakaima (1838-1845), he had to go into hiding due to the First Opium War. I must admit that no other sources suggest anything of the sort. It is written, however, that Nakaima traveled all the way to Beijing, to the Military Academy, and met Master Liu there. The master is said to have allowed Nakaima to copy all the books in his possession, including the Bubishi. However, the entire Nakaima family archive was destroyed in a fire during the bombing of Okinawa in 1945. Perhaps there was detailed information about Ryu Ryu Ko there, but Kenri's son - Kenchu Nakaima (1856-1953) - did not reveal it.
As for the teacher Kanryo Higaonna, whose grave Chojun Miyagi saw, it is best to refrain from making categorical judgments. Perhaps it was the grave of Iwah, or perhaps Wai Xinxian, or maybe Liu Long Gong. Or perhaps someone entirely different - a humble craftsman of bamboo objects, living by a river that once flooded and endangered his daughter, someone with whom Higaonna "continued" (ryuru) the training he had begun four years earlier at Kojo Dojo, a martial arts school run by a relative of the Kojo family.
Our search for Ryu Ryu Ko stems from our passion for clear genealogical lines. We readily accept that martial arts were passed down through generations of master-disciple relationships. But it turns out that such a lineage is found only in family-based styles. In fact, every known karate master (formerly tode) had several different teachers and, in addition, exchanged knowledge with peers. Kanryo Higaonna first trained with his relative Kanryu, with Seisho Aragaki, Taitei Kojo, Wai Xinxian, then with the mysterious Ryu Ryu Ko, and after returning to Okinawa, likely with many others. Given such a chaos of information, it is hardly surprising that the most outstanding living Goju-ryu master, Morio Higaonna (the similarity in names is coincidental), doubts the very existence of Master Ryu Ryu Ko.
KANRYO HIGAONNA AND SHOREI- RYU
Kanryo "Kensei" Higaonna
In previous chapters, the name Higaonna and the style Shorei-ryu have come up several times. Let's return to this topic. While Shorin-ryu, as a style distinct from Shorei-ryu, has survived to this day, the latter is more of a curiosity mentioned by Gichin Funakoshi - a certain variation of Naha-te - and quickly evolved into other styles. The figure of Higaonna deserves a more detailed discussion. But first - Higaonna or Higashionna? The first character of the surname is "higashi," so a Japanese person would read the surname as Higashionna, but in Okinawa the pronunciation of this character was simplified, so it was read as Higaonna. In this text, I use the latter version.
Kanryo Higaonna was born near Naha, in Nishimura (West Village) on March 10,[1] 1853. He was the fourth son of the merchant Kanyo Higaonna (of Chinese descent, from the Shen family). He had a relative named Kanryu Higaonna (1849-1922), who also practiced martial arts (he was also a well-known calligrapher). He lived in Higashimura (East Village). The similarity of their names caused a great deal of confusion, so Kanryo was called Higaonna the West, and Kanryu - Higaonna the East. It is likely that both were students of, among others, Seisho Aragaki.
Kanryo Higaonna began serious training in 1867, but the details of his practice over the next 15 years vary depending on the source. According to one account[2], Kanryo was motivatedby the fact that his father had been stabbed to death during a tavern brawl in the summer of 1867. The boy wanted to learn to fight, but he could not find a teacher in Okinawa. Perhaps this was because he did not belong to the shizoku nobility but to a lower class engaged in trade. So he set off for Fuzhou, hoping to learn martial arts there. He stayed at a boarding house for Ryukyuans (Liu Qui Guan), and after some time, he was referred to a master named Liu (?), who did not officially run a school but was involved in the transport of building materials. Kanryo carried bricks and beams all day long so that he could receive a kung fu lesson in the evening. And so 15 years passed until the master - seeing the political tension and the threat of war - persuaded his student to return to his native Okinawa. By that time, physical labor, rigorous training, and Spartan living conditions had turned Higaonna into a powerful man. Apparently, before dawn, the cold in his bedroom was so biting that Kanryo would get up and practice the Sanchin kata. A story that vividly resembles the cruel methods of Pai Mei from the movie "Kill Bill." It is, however, unlikely that a 15-year-old boy from Okinawa would travel alone to Fuzhou and take a job there.
According to another account, as reported by Shoshin Nagamine, Kanryo Higaonna began his training in Okinawa under Seisho Aragaki.
This hypothesis makes sense: if there was anyone from whom one could learn naha-te at that time, it was Master "Maya." But let's speculate further. After three years, just before his departure for China, the teacher entrusted his student to Master Taitei Kojo (1837-1915). Perhaps Kanryo had already briefly visited China for the first time by then (the Kojo family's dojo in Fuzhou). Three years later, in March 1873, thanks to Taitei Kojo's connections and the financial support of his aristocratic friend Chomei Yoshimura (1830-1898), a trip was organized for the 20-year-old to Fuzhou (perhaps under Aragaki's supervision). He most likely lived and trained at the Kojo Dojo under Wai Xinxian - a specialist in the White Crane style incorporating elements of Shaolin Quan Fa and the Five Ancestors Fist. Other details of this lengthy, nine-year stay are hazy. After the first four years, Higaonna is said to have lived with the mysterious master Ryu Ryu Ko, whom I wrote about in the previous chapter. Later, he spoke of a flood, saving his daughter, pleading for the opportunity to study, and years of training. It is also unclear what art Ryu Ryu Ko taught Higaonna. Perhaps it was a variation of the White Crane style with the Sanchin form as its foundation.
Kanryo Higaonna returned to Okinawa around 1882, took over the family business (the firewood trade), and taught martial arts only to the sons of his patron, Prince Yoshimura. It is said that he made his final trip to Fuzhou with them in 1898. A documented student from this period is Ch?gi Yoshimura (1866-1945), who left behind "Autobiographical Records of Martial Arts" (Jiden Bud?ki). Unfortunately, these records contain no information about Higaonna's travels to China or about the master's teachers.
In 1902, Higaonna accepted several students, the first of whom were Juhatsu Kyoda (1887-1968) and Chojun Miyagi (1888-1953). In 1905, riding the wave of karate's growing popularity, he began teaching at the Commercial School and the Fisheries School in Naha. His students included karateka who later became well-known, such as Kenwa Mabuni, Shinpan Shiroma, Seiko Higa, and Kanken Toyama.
A particularly important student was Miyagi, who developed Higaonna's Naha-te and created the Goju-ryu style (more on that later). Juhatsu Kyoda, who founded the Toon-ryu (To'on-ryu) style, sought to pass on Higaonna's orthodox teachings. The style's name is a direct reference to the master's surname. The character higashi/higa can be read as "to," and "on" is an abbreviation of "onna."
The above accounts of Higaonna's stay in China are not the only ones, and the differences regarding the duration of his stay are simply unbelievable: ranging from a year and a half (Iken Tokashiki), to 3 years (Chojun Miyagi), 9, 15 (Nagamine), and even 30 years (Toguchi)! However, a long-term stay in China would have necessarily involved learning weapon combat, and Higaonna never demonstrated any weapons. Furthermore, researchers of Goju-ryu history have found no traces of Higaonna's stay in Fuzhou. He himself never named his style; he simply referred to it as quan fa (Chinese: the art of the fist).
Kanryo Higaonna taught essentially four kata: Sanchin, Seisan, Sanseiru, and Suparinpei[3]. These forms are known as the "Big Four of Southern Shaolin" and form the foundation of all styles derived from Naha-te. They were therefore known in Okinawa before Higaonna began his training. Legends were told of Higaonna's powerful Sanchin. It is said that the mats would heat up from the master's feet as he performed kata. There is also an account that Chinese medicine practitioners were full of admiration for Higaonna's breathing, muscle tension, and energy generation[4].
Let us conclude by mentioning a sort of moral lesson that children in Okinawan schools were reportedly taught. It was widely known that Kanryo Higaonna had traveled to China to study martial arts, with the intention of later taking revenge on his father's killer. Upon Kanryo's return, this man lived in constant fear; finally, he came to his house, knelt down, and began to explain that the incident from years ago had been a drunken brawl, that the knife had belonged to Mr. Higaonna, that it had been an act of self-defense, and that he had stood trial and served his sentence. Kanryo listened to the explanations and calmed the visitor, much to the disappointment of some onlookers who had been hoping for a bloody spectacle.
There are many gaps in the history of Higaonna's Naha-te. He never wrote anything himself; in fact, he was reportedly illiterate. Perhaps he told Ky? and Miyagi some stories. They recorded them, but all the archives were destroyed in a fire during the Battle of Okinawa in 1945. Chojun Miyagi said of Higaonna: "My sensei possessed incredible strength. The severity of the training he underwent in China is beyond comprehension... Kanryo Sensei's speed and power were truly superhuman; his hands and feet moved faster than lightning." Because of his skills and character traits, Higaonna had several nicknames, such as "Kensei" (true fist) and "O-bushi" (great warrior).
In December 1915, Kanryo Higaonna died of bronchial asthma. His martial art forms the foundation of Naha-te and was further developed and popularized by his students, among whom Chojun Miyagi, Juhatsu Kyoda, and Kenwa Mabuni hold a special place. But not only them.
Several masters lived in Naha who were not particularly eager to take on students, which is why we know so little about them. Master Shinkichi Kuniyoshi (1848-1926), known as "Bushi Kuniyoshi" (Warrior Kuniyoshi), deserves special mention; he was a man of impressive physical strength, an excellent horseman, an aristocrat, and a descendant of the Sa clan. He lived in Naha Kumoji, which is why he was also called "Yanbaru Kunishi of Kumoji." He was only a year younger than Higaonna. Around 1908, he moved from Naha Kumoji north to Nago. Perhaps that is why he did not have many students. But one was important. Shigeru Nakamura (1894-1969), formerly a student of Itosu, became acquainted with Kuniyoshi's style and his specific versions of kata (e.g., Niseishi). He trained at several other schools before finally founding his own under the name Okinawa Kenpo.
ITOSU CODE
Anko Itosu ca. 1880 and ca. 1909
Anko (Yasutsune) Itosu (1831-March 11, 1915[1]), also known as Meijin (master artist), was born in Shuri into a noble family (albeit of low rank) and received a thorough education in his youth. He was a master of calligraphy and worked as a secretary at the royal court until the monarchy was abolished in 1879. He began studying martial arts at the age of 16, first in Tomari under Master Nagahama, then under Kosaku Matsumura (perhaps meeting Annan at that time), and also under Master Gusukuma. Around 1865, he began training with Sokon "Bushi" Matsumura, but the teacher complained that his student was too slow. Training under Master Nagahama was too strength-oriented, which hindered his speed. Short in stature but powerfully built, Itosu aroused universal respect. It was said that he could kill any opponent with a single strike. Matsumura himself called him the strongest budoka in Okinawa, but it was a backhanded compliment. Chosin Chibana (1885-1969) recalled that Matsumura once said to Itosu: "With your powerful strike, you can knock anyone down, but you can't even touch me." This does not change the fact that Itosu is one of the most important figures in the history of karate. He became the teacher of many outstanding and distinguished later masters, such as: Kentsu Yabu, Chomo Hanashiro, Chotoku Kyan, Gichin Funakoshi, Kanken Toyama, Kenwa Mabuni, Shinpan Shiroma, Anbun Tokuda, Chojo Oshira, and the aforementioned Chibana[2].
As is widely known, Itosu made a significant contribution to the popularization of karate. Even at the end of the 19th century, Japanese authorities viewed the teaching of martial arts in Okinawa with suspicion, seeing them as a breeding ground for separatist ideas. Therefore, karate (then called to-de) was practiced in small groups at the master's home. Not everyone could train. There were usually only a few students, and they had to be recommended by acquaintances. There were also no textbooks, notes, or drawings. But around 1900 (some sources cite 1892, others 1901), Itosu was invited by the superintendent of education, Shintaro (Ginnosuke) Ogawa, to a meeting with school principals. Together with his students, he gave a karate demonstration. The education authorities recognized the merits of this martial art and granted permission to include it in the school curriculum in Okinawa (the first was the Shihan Gakko - Teachers College). Karate emerged from the "underground."
Itosu wrote a letter to the Okinawa Prefectural Board of Education, which was reportedly also sent to the Japanese Ministries of Education and War. In this letter, he explained the principles of practicing to-de. Itosu wrote: "To-de is not only the development of the practitioner's physical strength, but also the study of self-defense in the broadest sense. Help people and avoid fighting. Try not to strike even a thief or a hooligan. Never demonstrate punches or kicks to bystanders." And in another letter of his (written in 1908), Itosu concludes with these words: "Students of the Okinawa Prefectural Teachers' College should train in to-de so that, upon graduation, they may teach this art to children in the same way that I taught them." Thus, Itosu sought to popularize karate.
With the authorities' approval, Itosu set about developing a set of exercises for schools. By simplifying the old Kushanku and Channan forms, he created the Pinan kata. Between 1904 and 1905, he developed five forms of increasing difficulty. They are still practiced today and are of great importance at the beginning of every karateka's training. Initially, the karate instructors in schools were Itosu himself and his students Kentsu Yabu and Chomo Hanashiro. Other leading students of Itosu - Gichin Funakoshi and Kenwa Mabuni - left Okinawa and (after Meijin's death) founded karate schools on the main Japanese island of Honshu.
However, some historians and contemporary karate masters believe that in the early 20th century, Itosu did more than simply create the basic Pinan forms for use in schools. They argue that it was at that time that a fundamental shift occurred in the approach to training and in the way techniques were taught. Some even speak of a split between "old" and "new" karate.
What is the issue? Until now, karate instruction took place within a circle of trusted individuals, as mongai-fushutsu (an art passed down in confidence, not demonstrated in public). The teacher was confident that the student would not use their skills for immoral purposes or rashly teach others. However, the popularization of karate came at a price. Now, every student of a given school had the right to participate in classes. Students from commoner families spread karate "to the masses." Furthermore, Itosu foresaw that in the future there would be numerous open karate dojos. So how to resolve the dilemma: an elite martial art requiring moral character or a popular sport?
The old master composed the Pinan kata and new versions of kata in which he "encoded" the most effective techniques in the guise of other techniques or movements seemingly ineffective in combat. Only an experienced instructor who had himself learned from a true master could understand the interpretation of these forms. Even today, uninformed people mock the Pinan/Heian kata as detached from real combat, failing to understand "Itosu's code." The second issue was the training method. Physical education classes were held several times a week. Meanwhile, the recollections of Itosu's students indicate that they used to train daily for many hours (though without allowing themselves to become extremely exhausted).
It is worth mentioning here the significant assistance provided by Kentsu Yabu (1863-1937) in organizing the training. Until then, the master had had only a few students. He would demonstrate techniques to them and correct their mistakes. Now, the teacher found himself facing a group of several dozen people. Yabu, who had been an officer in the Japanese army (some students nicknamed him "Sergeant"), proposed lining up in a column (ju-tai), a system of commands (e.g., kyotsuke, kiritsu, hajime), and counting the repetitions of exercises aloud (ichi, ni, san, shi...). Chomo Hanashiro (1869-1945) also had a background in the Imperial Army. In 1905, he compiled a booklet titled "Karate Kumite" intended as a teaching aid for karate as a form of self-defense. Only two pages of it have survived, but they have nonetheless gone down in history due to the new spelling of the ideogram "kara" (more on this later).
Itosu's senior students and other instructors naturally noticed the shift toward "new karate." But one of the younger students - Chosin Chibana, who had learned the old versions of the kata from Shinkazu Tawada - also asked Itosu about the differences. Itosu suggested that the old methods of execution were also worth saving from oblivion. Kenwa Mabuni (the founder of the Shito-ryu style) had a similar experience. A budoka named Morihiro Matayoshi, who worked for his parents, taught him kata in the naifanchin-dachi stance. Mabuni demonstrated this form to Itosu and was told that it was an old, original version. Itosu created his Na-ihanchi 1-3 kata series, likely based on an old single form passed down to him by Sokon Matsumura.
Itosu concealed some techniques, but he did not initiate the multiple interpretations of traditional forms. Kata are not - as some believe - a fight against an invisible opponent, but an idea, a metaphor, and something much more. The versions of the old masters, such as Matsumura, Matsumora, Aragaki, and Yara, as well as those passed down by the next generation - Chibana, Funakoshi, Mabuni, and Kuniyoshi - also present many mysteries. There are no historical sources; there is only oral transmission from teacher to student, and this is often incomplete. That is why even the modern-day heirs of the old masters study kata in depth, compare versions, and discover new meanings in the forms[3].
What about training methods? Japanese authorities began to view karate more favorably when it became apparent that recruits from Okinawa stood out for their health, fitness, and physical strength. The basic training framework - kihon, kata, kumite, and makiwara - has survived to this day, although advanced training used to be much more dominated by kata.
In October 1908, Itosu formulated the famous "Ten Guidelines of Karate" (To-de Jukun), which he included in a letter to the Japanese Ministry of Education and the Ministry of War. Here is the text[4] :
"Karate did not develop from Buddhism or Confucianism. In the past, the Shorin-ryu and Shorei-ryu schools were brought to Okinawa from China. Both of these schools have strengths, which I will mention now, before too many changes occur:
- Karate is not intended merely for physical training. If it becomes necessary to fight for a just cause, karate provides fortitude a spirit that allows one to risk one's own life in defense of values. (...)
- The goal of karate training is to strengthen the muscles and make the body as hard as iron and stone, so that one can use one's hands and feet as weapons. Karate training builds courage, which is why it should be promoted in our schools. Don't forget what the Duke of Wellington said after defeating Emperor Napoleon: "The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton."
- Karate cannot be learned in a short time. But - just as an ox, no matter how slowly it walks, will eventually cover a thousand miles - so too will someone who decides to study diligently for two or three hours a day, after three or four years of effort, undergo a great transformation and see the essence of karate.
- One of the most important things in karate is training the hands and feet. That is why you should use the makiwara. To practice effectively, lower your shoulders, open your lungs, focus your energy, grip the ground firmly to ground your stance, and direct your ki energy to the lower tanden. Perform up to two hundred tsuki with each hand every day.
